Indian Perspective of Dharma

1

The
Essence of Dharma: Indian Perspective

Professor Mahavir Saran
Jain

Ancient Indian thinkers had
reflected on many of the important problems of Aesthetics. It is note
worthy that the Indian tradition of aesthetics has always regarded
great poets as seers and prophets. It is clearly mentioned that ΄
kaavya ́ (poetry/ literature) is different from aagamas,
shastraas, itihaas etc. Tasting or appreciation of art is viewed as
an expression of delight, bliss and ecstasy. It is well known fact
that Bharat Muni formulated the theory of ΄ rasa ́ (jl)
in his monumental work ΄NaTya shaastra ́ (ukV~;
“kkL= ). This theory of rasa had been later
developed and enriched by others. The Indian philosophers of literary
art have distinguished between ΄ Rasa ́ (jl
) and ΄ Bhaava ́ (Hkko
). Bhaava is a life emotion whereas Rasa is an art emotion. The
theory of Rasa has dealt elaborately the process of transmutation of
life emotion ΄ bhaava ́ into art emotion ΄ rasa ́.
Rasa is always pleasurable even if the presented situation displays a
painful emotion. This is the reason that literary pieces of ΄
KaruNa rasa ́ (d#.k jl) give
pleasure although they depict pathetic, mournful, grief and sorrowful
sentiments. The example of ΄ Sringaara rasa ́ (J`aaxkj
jl) in relation to its corresponding emotion ΄ rati
bhaava ́ (jfr Hkko) can
make things quite clear. Rati bhaava is a physical passion in its
kinetic aspect; Sringaara rasa is its transmutation in art purged of
all that is obsessive and disquieting in it, and realized as all
tenderness and spiritual, super sensuous quality of love. The state
of ΄ rasaaswaad ́ (jlkLokn)
(perception or appreciation of poetic sentiments or emotions) can be
entitled as ΄ the state of universalized emotions ́
(lk/kkj.khdj.k). In
general, what happens in the change from ‘bhaavas ́ to ΄
rasas ́ is that whatever is personal, self regarding and
obsessive & disquieting come impersonal, reposeful and bright
with the sun shine of consciousness which leads ultimately to
transcendental bliss. The Indian model of aesthetics is based on the
notion that profound and knowledgeable communion with art lifts a man
of taste (lg`n; ) out of
ones own time and space. In this model, like rasaaswaada of kaavya,
aesthetic experience of any art form can be understood with the
parallel of the realization of of ΄ Brahmaanand ́
(czg~ekuan ) ( Bliss or
rapture of absorption into the Supreme Being). In this background,
the substance of Dharma with reference to ΄ aatman ́
(vkReu~ Soul) and Brahman (czg~e
Supreme soul) is being commenced.

Truth is one. It is said: ekam
sad ( ,da ln~
). It can be expressed in many ways:
΄vipraa bahudhaa vadanti ΄ (~
foizk cgq/kk onfUr).
Similarly, Dharma is one but is propagated to mankind through various
religions. Dharma is the substantive (Noun). Every religion, in
addition to a substance, has many adjectives that make it unique.

Dharma is
the strength & force by which human qualities develop in an
individual. Dharma makes the action of the individual pure and pious.
Dharma elevates the qualities of humanity and social awareness in an
individual. Dharma inspires a person to possess and practice those
virtues and values, which make him a good human being. A good human
being invariably means a good social being also.

What are those virtues and values
that a human being is expected to possess in his life? Do egoism,
anger, greediness, unrestrained sexuality, cruelty and violence
deserve possession? If all the members of society possess these
traits, if everybody breaks the moral or social order of sexual–life,
can the concept of family be conceived and harmonious social
relations can be established?

The basis for a happy life and harmonious social order
is self-restraint. It does not mean renunciation or the total
elimination of desires. Desires should not be suppressed or removed,
but should be sublimated.

When a person governs himself, it
is self-restraint. When a person observes social or governmental
rules, leads his life with a sense of responsibility, then his rights
and freedom exist. When a person controls and limits the acquisition
of commodities, economic disparities become less. If every member of
society does the same, the basic necessities of every person can be
fulfilled. When there is no self- restraint in the members of a
society, chaos prevails and the government punishes its citizens
severely to protect the social–order. The grip of the
government becomes severe and merciless and a centralized power or
dictatorship comes into existence.

Thus, compliance of dharma is a
prerequisite for having happiness & freedom in personal life and
equality and harmony in social life.

The relevance of dharma on the
personal level lies in welfare and happiness of an individual. His
liberation from illusion/ Maya/ mental impurities finally results in
attaining a state of salvation/ mukti (eqfDr)/
mokSa ( eks{k ) / pure
consciousness/ enjoyment of pure bliss/ nirvaNa (fuokZ.k)/
baikunDa (cSdqaB )/devotional
worship and supreme devotion to Ishwara. Dharma purifies one's
consciousness and sublimates the human instincts. Dharma imparts
individual feelings of compassion and affinity towards other beings.

The relevance of Dharma on the
social level lies in establishing those social conditions that are
essential for peace, goodwill, freedom, equality, progress and
development of the society. The Vedic seers laid the foundation stone
for harmonious social life. ΄Sam
gachchhadhvam Sam vadadhvam sam vo manaansi jaanataam ΄
(You go together, speak together, let your minds think together)
(_xosn
Rig-Veda
10/191/2). The
Vedic seers began
with worshipping gods or divinities (nsork).
The principal Vedic gods are said to be 33 in number, namely eight
Vasus, eleven Rudras, twelve Adityas, Indra and Prajapathi Brahma.
These gods belong to the three regions of the earth (i`Foh),
the heavens (|qyksd) and the
intermediate space (varfj{k). Most
popular gods of the Rig Vedic hymns are Indra (bUnz
), Varuna (o#.k ), Agni (vfXu
), Rudra(#nz ), Mitra(fe=
), Vayu(ok;q ), Surya (lw;Z
), Usha(m’kk ),
Soma (lkse ) etc.Indra is the lord
of the heavens.  He is the most popular and powerful of the
Vedic deities. He is described as the god of the blue sky. He rides a
white elephant called Airaavata (,Zjkor
) and wields the dazzling weapon of lightening called Vajraayudh
(otzk;q/k ).If we find in Indra
the qualities of a war lord or a typical king,  in Varuna we see
the earliest signs of an omniscient, omnipresent, omnipotent 
and compassionate god, the precursor of the Upanishad Brahman. Varuna
is the ruler of the worlds, the ordained and enforcer of law and
upholder of the world order. In one of the Rig Vedic hymns he is
described as the Lord of the earth and heaven who sustains the tree
that has its roots in heaven and branches down below. This
description reminds us of the famous Ashvattha (v”oRFk
) tree of the latter day scriptures. Varuna is the knower of
all and controller of all. He is the supreme god capable of
controlling and dispensing justice. Mitra and Varuna are both lords
of the heaven. Together they uphold the law; they cause the cows to
stream, the plants to flourish, and, ΄scattering swift drops,
send down the rain-flood ΄. Agni is the chosen Priest, god,
minister of sacrifice, the hotra (gks=k),
who lavishes wealth and dispels the darkness, no sacrifice is
complete without his presence. His presence verily ensures the
success of a sacrifice, because whatever sacrifices he accepts goes
to the gods. Agni is the messenger, the herald, master of all wealth,
oblation-bearer, much beloved, who brings the willing gods from the
heavens and makes them sit on the grass with him near the sacrificial
altar. The Rudra of the Rig-Veda is a fierce looking god, well
built and golden in color, a militant god of storms and
lightening and a provider of medicines. Though he did not enjoy the
same status as Indra, he definitely enjoyed his own importance
because of his tempestuous nature, his association with storms and
storm gods called Maruts and his ability to bring medicines to the
people to prolong their lives. Vayu is described in the Rig-Veda
as a beautiful god, ideally the first partaker of soma juice which he
seems to be especially fond of. He is a friend of Indra and a hero
who shares the glory of victory with the latter. He is swift as mind,
the thousand-eyed and the Lords of thought. Surya is the blazing sun.
He is one of the Adityas, god among gods, the light that is most
excellent, golden colored, who rides the skies in his golden chariot,
drawn by seven bay horses, which are described in the hymns as the
daughters of heaven. He is said to be extremely brilliant, with
radiant hair, which flies in the skies like a bird and shines
brightly like a jewel. Giver of power and strength, destroyer of
laziness and darkness, with bright light radiating from him, he knows
all that lives. Before him, the constellations pass away, like
thieves, together with their rays. Swift and beautiful, Surya is the
maker of the light, who illumines the radiant realm, who goes to the
flock of gods as well as to the world of mankind with his light. Usha
is dawn, the daughter of the sky, lady of the light, who rouses all
life. She stirs all creatures that have feet, and makes the birds of
air fly up. Borne on a hundred chariots, she yokes her steed before
the arrival of the sun and is never late. She eludes the Sun who is
always eager to catch her. She brings not just light to the sleeping
mankind, but hope, happiness, riches and all the good things. On the
physical plane, Soma is some kind of intoxicating juice. As a god,
Soma is the god of inspiration, the intoxicant who stirs the minds,
lures the gods and brings them to the place of worship. One of the
most popular gods of the Rig Vedic hymns, the entire 9th Mandala of
the scripture is dedicated to him. Also known as Indu or Somadeva, he
brings joy into the lives of people, cures them from diseases and
leads them to the worlds of bliss and immortality. He gives strength
not only to mortals, but to the gods as well. Because of him, Indra
was able to slay Vritra (o`= ).
Because of him Agni maintains his sway. He is also known as Lord
of the speech because of his intoxicating influence on the movement
of speech.

The Vedic seers do
not stop at revealing the existence of gods.
They went from the external to the internal cosmic body, God
immanent in the universe, and ended in identifying the soul itself
with that God, and making one Soul, a unit of all these various
manifestations in the universe, and asserting that the whole universe
is but one.

In the Vedas a number of hymns
are addressed to Visvadeva ( fo”onso
). The Visvadeva is a class of the popular gods of the Vedas. When
they were collectively invoked through a common ritual, they
were addressed as Visvadeva. In the hymns of the Visvadeva, we
generally find the names of all those popular gods which have been
above-mentioned. In addition to these gods, we find the names of
other gods also such as Bhaga(Hkx
), DakSa Prajaapati(n{k iztkifr
), Aditi (vfnfr ), Aaryaman
(vk;Zeu ),the Ashvins (vf”ouh
dqekj @ vf”ouh ;qxy ), Saraswatee (ljLorh
), PuSan (iw’ku ),Marut (e#r
), Rta (_r
), and the Dikpala (fnd~iky ).

By
addressing various gods collectively, the Vedic people acknowledged
the unity of these gods and their inter relationships. The opinion of
the Rig Vedic people was that the gods came into being from a common
parentage and were helpful in nature. In contrast, the demons were
wicked and troublesome. Although each god in the pantheon was endowed
with specific qualities and responsibilities, the Vedic Aryans did
not miss the larger picture and their underlying connection in the
order (_r)
of things. The changeless and immortal nature of supreme soul has
been described in Atharva Veda. It is said that the supreme soul is
free from desire, non-mutable, immortal, self-existent, satisfied
with its own bliss and not deficient in any
respect.( vdkeks /khjks ve`r%
Lo;EHkw jlsu r`Irks u Lo;EHkw
jlsu r`Irks u dqr”puksu%A)

The
Upanishads reveal the knowledge about Brahman and are known as
Vedanta, meaning "end of the Vedas". They are the
concluding portions of the Vedas. There are several interpretations
of the word Upanishad. Shankar interprets it as a means to destroy
ignorance by revealing the knowledge of the Supreme Spirit by cutting
off the bonds of worldly existence.  The Upanishad seers gave
new dimensions to Dharma and Darshan.
In order to establish social unity, Upanishad thought proclaims:
"Ekastathaa
sarva bhootantaraatmaa"
(One or the same is in inner-Self / Essence of all Beings) and
“Ishaavaasyamidam
sarvam" (All the
things in the universe are enveloped by the Supreme). 

The relationship between
Paramaatman and Aatman
is likened to the indwelling God and the soul within one's heart like
two birds on a tree.

Two birds with fair wings, knit
with bonds of friendship, in the same sheltering tree have found a
refuge. (Rig
Veda
1.164.20)

Like two birds of golden plumage,
inseparable companions, the individual self and the immortal Self are
perched on the branches of the same tree. The former tastes of the
sweet and bitter fruits of the tree; the latter, tasting of neither,
calmly observe. (Mundaka
Upanishad
3.1.1)

They are two birds, close
companions, clasping the same tree. Of the two, one eats sweet fruit;
the other looks on without eating. On this same tree a person, sunk
and grieving in slavery, is deluded, but upon observing the Lord
happy and great, becomes free of sorrow. (Shvetashvatara
Upanishad
4.7)

The Supreme
Being
that dwells in our heart is dearer to us than even our children,
wealth and everything else. (Brihadaranyaka
Upanishad
1.4.8)

Paramaatman or the Supreme spirit or Brahman is
beyond knowledge and ignorance and is devoid of all material
attributes (mikf/k). In Chapter 13
of the Bhagavad-Gita, Paramaatman is described as VishNu
(fo’.kq
) residing in the hearts of all beings and in every atom of matter.
He is the overseer and judicature of their actions. Paramaatman is
different from five elements (iap
egkHkwr), the senses,
mind,
intellect and jiva.
The Jivaatman and the Paramaatman are known to be one and the same
when the Jivaatman attains the true knowledge of the Brahman (czã
Kku)

Brahman
is the name given to the concept of the unchanging, infinite,
immanent and transcendent reality that is the Divine Ground of all
being. It is regarded as the source and sum of the cosmos that
constricted by time, space and causation, as pure being.
Essentially, it is also beyond being and non-being alike, and thus
does not quite fit with the usual connotations of the word God and
even the concept of monism. It is said that Brahman cannot be known,
that we cannot be made conscious of it, because Brahman is our very
consciousness. Brahman is not merely coming to know Brahman, but to
realize one's 'Brahman-hood', to actually realize that one is and
always was Brahman. Indeed, closely related to the Self concept of
Brahman is the idea that it is synonymous with jivaatma, or
individual souls, our aatman
(or soul) being readily identifiable with the greater soul of
Brahman. It is described as Sat, Chit and Ananda in its
essential nature. The features of the Brahman are described almost in
all the Upanishads. Ishaavaasya Upanishad says, “All
the things in this universe are enveloped by the Lord.” (The
Supreme is) faster than the mind, and therefore beyond the reach of
senses. One, who sees all beings in his own Self and his Self in all
beings, has hatred for none. The Atman is self-sufficient, is
everywhere, without a body, without blemish, radiant, pure, knowing
all, seeing all and encompassing all. All the entities have been
created by the omniscient, self-sustaining Lord and who is the
controller of all the minds. This Upanishad has the central theme of
extolling the all pervasiveness (loZ
O;kidRo ) and all regulating (loZ
fu;kedRo ) nature of the Supreme Lord. The central idea of
Kena Upanishad is that the
Brahman is verily the source of all vital energies in this universe
is infinite and therefore cannot be comprehended by speech and mind.
He is beyond the reach of the senses, beyond words and even beyond
the mind. Being Infinite, He cannot be brought within the compass of
limited knowledge. One cannot know how He directs the senses, mind,
etc. However, He does not remain altogether unknown, but is not
completely known because of His infinite nature. He is unique,
distinct from and Superior to all known things manifest or
un-manifest. He cannot be known through speech, mind, eyes, etc., but
knows all that is known through these and regulates them. The nature
of self is aptly explained in KaTha Upanishad.
Realizing by reverting to the contemplation of the Self to the
eternal God, the wise man leaves both joy and sorrow behind. The Self
is without sound, without touch, without form, without decay,
likewise without taste, eternal, without smell, without beginning,
without end, beyond the great; one is freed from the mouth of death
by discovering that.( v”kCneLi”kZe:ieO;;a
rFkkjla fuR;exU/koPp ;r~A vuk|uUra
egr%
ija ?kzqoa fupkI; rUe`R;qeq[kkr~ izeqP;rsA
KaTha Upanishad 3/15 )
MaaNDookya Upanishad starts with a mahaavaakya that
this Atman is Brahman ( v;ekRek
cãz
). The Upanishad also clearly
explains the correct interpretation of the words OM, Aatman,
Brahman, and akshara, all of which denote Brahman by
describing Him with His special attributes. The liberated soul being
free from ignorance (vKku @
vfon~;k) attains similarity with the
Supreme Lord in respect of being free from sorrow and enjoying bliss
etc. The Supreme Lord and the soul are similar to each other. Their
relation is like of an object compared to which it is compared. The
second part of Taittireeya Upanishad describes how
there is an ascending order of bliss, starting from that of a human
being and culminating in Brahmaanand (czãkuan
). The body is the physical sheath (vUue;
dks’k ). Within the physical
sheath there is an inner sheath made of vital energy that is PraaNa
(izk.ke; dks’k
). Inside the sheath of PraaNa (izk.k),
there is an inner self consisting of mind (eukse;
dks’k). Different from the sheath
of mind, there is an inner self which consists of intellect.
Different from the sheath of intellect (foKkue;
dks’k), there is an inner self
consists of bliss, and which fills the sheath of intellect. This
sheath of bliss (vkuUne; dks’k)
is enclosed by the sheath of intellect. The knowledge sought by
Bhrigu (Hk`xq)
and imparted by VaruNa (o#.k)
is ultimately established that bliss is Brahman, because all beings
are born from bliss, remain alive by bliss, move towards bliss and
then merge into bliss. The Aitareya Upanishad proclaims
that Brahman is pure consciousness (izKkua
czã).
The BrihadaaraNyaka Upanishad says that I am Brahman
(vga czãkfLe).
The Chhaandogya Upanishad
says that you are that (rRRoefl
).
As per the language of Upanishads ́ that ́ means Brahman.
This Upanishad teaches us that there is no difference between the
Atman within a person and Brahman. It tells us how we reach a stage
when we get rid of all bonds and achieve Aatmaanand (vkRekuUn
). In
various Upanishads, the Brahman is called as
"Sacchidaananda"( lfPpnkuUn
). Broken down, it is "sat",
"chitta", and "aananda" meaning "truth",
"consciousness", and "bliss" respectively. In the
Hindu pantheon, Brahman should not be confused with the first of the
Hindu trinity of Brahma (the Creator), Vishnu (the Preserver) and
Shiva (the Destroyer). Brahma is, like the other gods, Ishwar, or
manifested Brahman, fundamentally ego-conscious, whereas Brahman is
without ego and beyond form. The central theme of Upanishads is the
delineation of a Supreme Being as the cardinal principle of the
universe. This is designated as Brahman, Aatman, Akshara, Aakaasha,
PraaNa, etc. It is also the one and only independent Principle upon
which all other entities are dependent. It is immanent and
transcendent. Being infinite in all respects, it cannot be
comprehended by anyone completely. It has no drawbacks or blemishes
of any kind. It directs all and is not directed or constrained by
anyone. It is absolutely independent in its very nature and essence,
functions and comprehension and innate unlimited bliss, none of which
need any element external to it for its completeness. All others
derive their limited qualities and capacities from it. It is thus
described as Sat, Chit and Aananda in its essential nature. The
features of the Supreme Lord are described almost in all the
Upanishads.

The later
stage of Vedanta is marked by the Bhagavad-Gita.
It particularly dwells on the application of the Upanishad teachings
to the practical life enunciating spiritual and moral disciplines for
different types and grades of seekers and points out the way to
conform normal life to the highest ideal. The Upanishads,
Brahma-sutras and Bhagavad-Gita form the triple basis of Vedanta
(izLFkku=;h).


They are respectively called the Sruti-prasthaana, the
Nyaya-prasthaana and the Smriti-prasthaana Vedanta as they follow the
course of revelation (Jqfr),
reason (U;k;)
and regulation of life (Le`fr).

When the Jivaatman attains the true knowledge of the
Brahman (czg~e Kku ), the
Jivaatman and the Paramaatman are known to be the one and the same.
Those who are free from pride and delusion, who have overcome the
evils of attachment, who are constant in contemplating the relation
of the supreme and individual self, from whom desire has departed,
who are free from the pairs of opposites called pleasure and pain, go
undiluted to that imperishable seat.

   The
sun does not light it, nor the moon, nor fire. That is my highest
abode, going to which none returns. An eternal portion of me it is,
which, becoming an individual soul in the mortal world, draws to
itself the senses with the mind as the sixth. When a man moves among
the objects of senses having the senses under control and mind free
from attachment and jealousy, he enjoys bliss. (jkx}s’kÚfo;qDrSLrq
fo’k;kfufUnz;S”pju~A vkReo”;foZ?ks;kRek
izlknef?kxPNfrAABhagavad-Gita 2/64)
without balance of mind there is neither intelligence, nor
concentration; without concentration there is no peace; without peace
how can there be happiness. (Bhagavad-Gita 2/66).
Besides Bhagavad-Gita in Bhishma parva, the Mahaabhaarat
(egkHkkjr
) - one of two major or
greatest epics of India-, narrates the main story of Pandavaas and
Kauravaas and the war of Kurukshetra using the story within a story
structure, also contains philosophical and cultural material. The
nature of Aatman (Self), relationship of the individual to society
and discussion of human goals namely (1) artha or material resources,
(2) kaama or pleasure/ sex, (3) dharma or duty and (4) moksha or
liberation have been discussed extensively. The characteristics of
the Supreme or Brahman are that He is the eternal (’kk’or
), the supreme( ije
), unchanging (?kzqo
), everlasting light ( T;ksfr%
lukrue~” ). The essence of
religion has been expressed in this epic extensively. For example,
some quotes are being submitted:

It
is only when a man does not commit sin in thought, deed or word in
respect of any living creatures; it is then that he attains to
Brahman. (;nk u dq#rs ikia
loZHkwrs dqfgZfpr~A dEeZ.kk eulk okpk czãk
lEi|rs
rnkA )

The
wise and learned say: magnanimity is a virtue. Therefore acquire
magnanimity, for you ought not to stay frivolity. ( mnkjeso
fo}kalks ?kEEkZa izkgqeZuhf’k.kke~A mnkja izfri|Lo
ukojs LFkkrqegZflAA )

The
dharma, which stands in the way of another dharma, is in fact no
dharma but is really unrighteousness. That dharma is true dharma
which is not conflicting to any other dharma. (?kEeZa
;ks ck?krs ?kEeksZa u l ?kEe%Za
dq?kEeZ rr~A vfojks?kkRr ;ks ?kEeZ%
l ?kEeZ%
lR;fDdzeAA )

Non-cruelty
(Ahimsa) is the best dharma. Forgiveness is the best of powers. The
knowledge of the self is the best of all knowledge. Truthfulness is
the best of religious vows. (vku`”kaL;a
ijks ?kEeZ% {kek p ijea cye~A vkReKkua
ija Kkua] lR;ozra ija ozre~A )

When
one does not fear in any way, nor any creature is frightened at one,
when one conquers one’s
attachment and aversion, then is one said to have realized the
Supreme soul. (u fcHksfr ;nk pk;a
;nk pkLekUu fcHksfrA dke}s"kkS p t;fr rnkRekua izi’;frAA
)

The
wise man, endued with equanimity, would neither be puffed up with joy
nor be depressed with sorrow. (i;kZ;r%
lOoZeokIuqofUr] rLe)hjks uSo â";su ’kkspsr~AA
)

Eyes
can not see the form of the soul. The organ of touch can not feel the
soul. Attainment of soul can not be accomplished by any of the five
organs of senses. The senses do not approach the soul. The soul
however apprehends them all. (u
p{kq"kk
i’;fr
:iekReuks u pkfi laLIk”kZeqiSfr fdf´~prA
u pkfi rS%
lk?k;rs rq dk;Za rs ra u Ik”;fUr l Ik”;rs rkuAA
)

When
one sees the one’s self
in all beings, and all beings in the one’s
self, is said to attain the Brahman. (loZHkwrs’kq
pkRekua loZHkwrkfu pkRefuA ;nk Ik”;fr HkwrkRek czã
lEi|rs
rnkAA )

When
one contracts all one’s
desires like a tortoise drawing in all his limbs, then the effulgence
of his soul manifests itself. (;nk
lagjrs dkeku~ dwEeksZ∙M~Ûxkuho
lOoZ”k%A
rnkReT;ksfrjfpjkr~ LokReU;so izlhnfrAA
)

Vedanta philosophy is realistic but not pluralistic. It
has two main divisions and their classification into different
schools is as follows:

1. Advaita Vedanta (Non-dualistic): VivarNa
School / Vaachaspati School

2. Monotheistic Vedanta : VishiSTaadvaita
(fof”k’Vk}Sr /qualified
nondualism) School of Ramanuja/ Shuddhaadvaita(
“kqn~/kk}Sr /pure nondualism)
School of Vallabhaacharya / Achintya-bhedaabheda (vfpUR;
HksnkHksn incomprehensible
difference-nondifference)) School of Sri Chaitanya/ Dvaita
(}Sr
dualism) School of Maadhvaacharya /
Dvaitaadvaita (}Srk}Sr
dualism in nondualism) School of
Nimbaarka

Each system of Vedantic philosophy is essentially an
interpretation of the Brahman-sutras supported by commentaries
on Upanishads and Bhagavad-Gita. Each school has
original writings also to elaborate on the teachings of the three
primary works to confirm to its views.

The aim or
the methodology of Sankhya and Yoga(lka[;
,oa ;ksx ) schools or doctrines of Indian philosophy is to
quiet the Prakriti (izd`fr =
nature ) as it exists in the body, so that, like a calm body of
water, body can reflect the true and detached nature of PuruSa (iq#’k
= self ), effecting liberation (eks{k
). Some quotes from YogavaashiSTha (;ksxokf”k’B
) - an encyclopedic text comprising twenty four thousand
verses on yogic disciplines -, are being presented:

Salutations
to the Soul of all, the light illuminating the heavens, the earth and
the intervening space, as also our hearts and their exteriors and all
that has manifested itself everywhere as visible forms.( fnfo
HkwekS rFkkdk”ks cfgjUr”p es foHkq%A
;ks foHkkR;oHkklkRek rLeS ue%A
)

The wise
say that the best thing for a man to do in the world is to give up
longing for objects which cause the mind to fluctuate and that such
abdication constitutes the liberation and that is to accomplish
purity.( v”ks’ks.k
ifjR;kxks oklukuka ; mRre%A
eks{k bR;qP;srs lfn~fHk%
l ,o foey%
dze%A
)

It is well
said that four sentinels wait at the gate of liberation which are (1)
patience and peace (2) knowledge of Brahma (3) contentment (4)
association of sacred persons. (eks{k}kjs
}kjikyk”pRokj%
ifjdhfrZrk%A
“keks fopkj%
larks’k”prqFkZ%
lk?kqlaxe%A
)

The
Supreme one can not be attained by bodily suffering or pain and by
visiting the places of pilgrimage. He can be attained only by the
conquest of mind.( u dk;Dys”koS?kq;Za
u rhFkkZ;rukJ;%A dsoya rUeuksek=t;suklk|rs ine~A )

Persons
can never have that happiness by the drink of nectar or by the
blessings of the goddess of wealth, which persons having tranquility
of mind enjoy. (u jlk;uikusu u
y{e;kfyM~Ûxusu pA rFkk lq[keokIuksfr ”kesukUr;ZFkk
tu%A
)

Supreme
bliss is possible only for those who are composed in mind.
(iz’kfereul% Lods Lo:is Hkofr lq[ks
fLFkfr#Rrek fpjk;A )

One who
sees Him within one's self as the All-powerful One, as the All
permeating One, as One of pure intelligence, does alone see Him in
his conscience. (lOoZ’kfDrjUrjkRek
lOoZHkkokUrjfLFkr%A vf}rh;f’pfnR;Ur;Z% i’;fr l i’;frA
)

About
2600 years ago Lord Mahavir or Vardhaman (599 to 527
BC), the twenty fourth and the last Tirthankara (rhFkZadj
) of this era revived the Jain philosophy previously preached by his
predecessor Lord Parshva (950 to 850 BC) in India. He expanded the
code of conducts and implemented daily rites for his followers. He
felt that such changes are essential for proper religious practice.
Lord Mahavir (Hkxoku egkohj  )  
said, “No
logassa esanaam chare (Do
not imitate or follow anybody)”, “Sampikkhae
appagamappaenam (Communicate
with and inspect your Self)”. Lord Mahavir also underlined the
social relevance of dharma by accepting Ahimsa Paramodharmá
(Non-violence - towards others as well - is the greatest Dharma).His
advice to all is “Don’t kill any living beings. Don't
try to rule them. To kill any living being amounts to killing
one self. Compassion to others is compassion to one's own self. Just
as you do not like misery, in the same way others also do not like
it. You should do unto them what you want them to do unto you".
“Just as pain is not agreeable to you, it is so with
others. Knowing this principle of equality treat other with respect
and compassion” (tg rs u fi;a
nqD[ka ] tkf.kv ,eso lOothok.kaA lOok;jeqomRrks ] vRrksoEes.k dq.klq
n;aAA ) Dharma is the highest good. It consists in
Ahimsa (non-violence), self control and austerities. Even the gods
revere him whose mind is always concentrated upon dharma. ( ?kEeks
eaxyeqfDdV~Ba vfgalk lateks roksA nsok fo ra uealfUr tLl ?kEes l;k
e.kksAA )
Lord
Mahavir is of the view that the soul is the home of excellent
virtues, the best among the substances and the highest reality among
the realities. (
mRrexq.kk.k ?kkea ] lOonOok.k mRrea nOoaA rPpk.ka ija rPpa ] thoa
tk.ksfg f.kPN;nksAA
)
He,
who is led by his senses, is extrovert or Bahiraatmaa and he who
exercises self discretion (i.e. not guided by external factors) is
introvert or Antaraatmaa. The self who is liberated from the
pollution of the karmas is Paramaatmaa.

The pure soul is free from activities of thought, speech
and body. He is independent, infallible and fearless. He is also free
from meekness, attachment and delusion.
The pure soul is free
from complexes, attachment, blemishes, desire, anger, pride, lust and
all other kinds of defects.
The state of pure knower ship is
neither vigilant nor non-vigilant. The knower self is called pure,
because it is only knower and nothing else.
The soul is neither
the body, nor the mind nor the speech, nor their cause. Nor is he
doer, nor the cause of action nor the approver of action. In this
way, I (Soul) am alone, really pure (
vgfeDdks [kyq lqn~/kks½
.
It is not possible to describe the state of liberation
in words as they transcend any such verbal expression. Nor is there
the possibility of argument as no mental business is possible. The
state of liberation transcends all the determinations and
alternatives. But for the sake of expression it can be said that the
bliss attained by the Siddhas in a moment is infinite times more than
the pleasure enjoyed by the emperors, by the Jivas residing in the
regions of the Karmas, and by the Fanindras, Surendras and
Ahamindrasin in all the ages –

ChakkikuruphaNisurinda-devahaminde
jam suham tikaalabhavam.
Tato aNantaguNidam, siddhaaNam
khaNasuham hodi. (Triloka Saar-560)(
pfDddq#Qf.klqfjUn nsogfeans ta lqga frdkyHkoaA rrks v.karxqf.kna ]
fl)k.ka
[k.klqga gksfnAA
)

The
followers of Jain Dharma pray to those who have led the path to
salvation, who have destroyed the mountains of karma, and who
know the reality of universe. The followers pray to them to acquire
their attributes.  ( eks{kekxZL;
usrkja ] HksRrkja deZ Hkw Hk`rkeA Kkrkja
fo”orRRokuka ] oans rn~xq.kyC?k;s A A
)

                                
  

Gautama Buddha (xkSre
cq)  ) gave a message
of friendship and compassion to every man. He said: “Pariksya
bhiksavo! Grahyamad vacho na tu gauravaat (You
accept my words after having examined them, do not be influenced by
my greatness)”. He who wishes to put on the yellow robe without
having cleansed himself from sin, who disregards self-control and
truth also, is unworthy of yellow robe. But who has cleansed
himself from sin, is well grounded in all virtues, and
endowed also with self-control and truth, he is indeed worthy of the
yellow robe. ( vfuDdlkoks dklkoa ;ks
oRFka ifjngsLlfr] visrks nelPpsu u lks dklkoejgfrA ;ks p oUrdlkoLl
lhyslq lqlekfgrks] misrks nelPpsu l os dklkoejgfrAA
Dhamma Pada 1/9-10) Buddhism is a path of practice and
spiritual development leading to insight into the true nature of
life. Buddhist practices such as meditation are means of changing
oneself in order to develop the qualities of awareness, kindness, and
wisdom. NirvaNa
(fuokZ.k)
is a Buddhist Sanskrit word describing
the stopping of the process sustaining conditioned states and
self-realization of Nirvana the unconditioned state. There are many
explanations of the term NirvaNa (fuokZ.k
): (1) “cessation"(2) "extinction"(3)"extinguished"(4)
"quieted"(5) "calmed"(6) "awakening" or
"enlightenment “. Amongst them, two explanations are more
prominent. One is that NirvaNa (fuokZ.k
) means "to extinguish," such as extinguishing the flame of
a candle(extinction of craving
and ignorance
and therefore termination of all types of sufferings
and the end of the cycle of involuntary rebirths ) and another is
that NirvaNa (fuokZ.k ) is the
completion of the path of Buddhism, where the real is won via
self-enlightenment and self-awakening and all delusion and anguish
are permanently ended even before death .

In
the middle ages, the saints criticized religious rituals and
religious pretension, and questioned the significance of studying and
interpreting of the Vedas by the learned persons. While saying
“PaakhanDa bhakti Raam nahin reeijhe (Ram is not attracted
towards hypocrite devotion) ", Saint Namdeva
has drawn our attention towards the inner core of Dharma. The purpose
of life lies in such devotion that leads to self-realization -
“Kaayaa antar paaiya, sab devan ko dev (The Self is in our
inner-body. Self is the God of all gods)" (Dadu
Dayal).

Dharma
exists neither in the village nor in the jungle but in our
antaraatmaa (Inner self). Does spiritual contemplation means
prostrating before God to fulfill ones worldly desires? Can a person
become religious by offering money at a temple? Does the significance
of Dharma lie in the collection of articles and commodities or in
being relieved from mental impurities like lust and aversion?

A
religious person cannot be selfish. Having known that 'One', he knows
everyone. He establishes in himself a sense of belonging to everyone.
Every particle of the universe becomes as important to him as his
body and soul. Through the identification of 'All', he identifies
himself. Tulsidasa
expressed it beautifully - " Parahit saris dharama nahin bhaaee,
par peeRaa sam nahin adhamaaee (There is no Dharma better than doing
well to others and there is no meanness worse than hurting others)".
Tulsidasa has clarified that Lord Raama (Hkxoku
jke ) is devoid of birth, the totality of Existence,
Knowledge and Bliss, wisdom personified, the home of beauty and
strength. He is both pervading and pervaded, fraction less, infinite
and integral, the Lord of unfailing power, attribute less, vast,
transcending speech as well as the other senses, all seeing, free
from blemish, invincible, unattached, devoid of form, free from
error, eternal and untainted by maayaa (ek;k
), beyond the realm of matter (izd`fr
), bliss personified, the Lord indwelling the heart of all, the
action less Brahma (czã ),
free from passion and imperishable. For the sake of His devotees, the
divine Lord look the form of an earthly sovereign and performed most
sacred deeds, in the manner of an ordinary mortal, as an actor - who
while acting in a drama on the stage, assumes various guises and
exhibits different characters but himself remains the same. (Hkxr
gsrq Hkxoku izHkq jke /kjsm ruq Hkwi Afd, pfjr ikou ije izkd`r uj
vuw:iAAtFkk vusd os"k /kfj u`R; djb uV dksb Alksb lksb Hkko
fn[kkovb vkiuq gksb u lksb A A
)

Guru
Nanak also characterized the
ultimate truth as one universal creator god (Lkfrukeq
djrk iq:[kq) , devoid of
fear and enmity (fujHkm fujoS
), immortal and unborn (vdkyewjfr
vtwuh ), self-existent
(fujatuq
), has no physical form (fujadkj
), without material attributes (fujxqu
), True in the primal beginning (vksadkj
). That is the true path where all paths have met. Conquer your mind
and you will conquer the world. Bow to him again and again. He is the
beginning. He is the end. He is without beginning, without break. He
is the same through different ages. Nanak has said, “The sacred
thread which is made of the cotton of kindness, thread of
contentment, knot of self – control and freedom of truth, does
not tarnish and does not burn. Blessed is that man who moves in this
world with such sacred thread on his neck.” (nb;k
dikgq larks[k lwrq trq xaMh lr oVA ,gq tusm thm dk gbr iaMs ?krA uk
,gq rqVS uk ey yxS uk ,gq tyS u tkbA ?kau lq ekul ukudk tks xypyS
ikbAA
)

Swami
Vivekananda
explained the importance of dedicated service. His message has
continued to inspire millions of his countrymen. His voice can
comfort the suffering and sanctify of their lives. "You rejoice
that you belong to the race of the great sages. But until those who
belong to the upper classes help to uplift the downtrodden, and until
exploitation ends, India will only be a grave. May Mother India step
forth anew from the humble dwelling of the peasant! May she appear in
the hut of the fisherman! May she step forth from the cottages of the
cobbler and the sweeper! May she become manifest in godowns and
factories! May the song of New India echo and reverberate amidst
mountains and in forests and valleys!"
The few very famous quotes of Swami Vivekananda are
mentioned below:

"What
is it that by knowing which everything else is to be known."

"Brave,
bold men, these are what we want. What we want is vigor in the blood,
strength in the nerves, iron muscles and nerves of steel."

"Avoid
all mystery. There is no mystery in religion. Mystery mongering and
superstition are always signs of weakness."

“Arise,
awake, for your country needs this tremendous sacrifice. It is the
young men that will do it. ‘The young, the energetic, the
strong, the well-built, the intellectual'- for them is the task.   
Lay down your comforts, your pleasures, your names, fame or position,
nay, even your lives, and make a bridge of human chains over which
millions will cross this ocean of life. Do not be frightened. Awake,
be up and doing. Do not stop till you have reached the goal."  

"I
would rather see every one of you rank atheists than superstitious
fools, for the atheist is alive and you can make something out of
him. But if superstition enters, the brain is gone, the brain is
softening, and degradation has seized upon the life."

“So
long as the millions live in hunger and ignorance, I hold every man a
traitor who, having been educated at their expense pays not the least
heed to them!”

"Work
unto death - I am with you, and when I am gone, my spirit will work
with you. This life comes and goes - wealth, fame, enjoyments are
only of a few days. It is better, far better to die on the field of
duty, preaching the truth, than to die like a worldly worm."

“My
faith is in the younger generation, the modern generation; out of
them will be my workers. They will work out the whole problem, like
lions. "

"Truth,
purity, and unselfishness - wherever these are present, there is no
power below or above the sun to crush the possessor thereof. Equipped
with these, one individual is able to face the whole universe in
opposition."

The
central theme of Sri Aurobindo's
vision is the evolution of life into a divine life. "Man is a
transitional being. He is not final. The step from man to superman is
the next approaching achievement in the earth's evolution. It is
inevitable because it is at once the intention of the inner spirit
and the logic of Nature's process".
The aim of yoga is an inner self-development by which each one who
follows it can in time discover the One Self in all and evolves a
higher consciousness than the mental, a spiritual and supramental
consciousness which will transform and divinize human nature. Shree
Aurobindo has been a great visionary and has inspired the country and
mankind. His very famous quotation is presented herewith:
"Out of this awakening vision and impulse the Indian renaissance
is arising, and that must determine its future tendency. The recovery
of the old spiritual knowledge and experience in all its splendor,
depth and fullness is its first, most essential work; the flowing of
this spirituality into new forms of philosophy, literature, art,
science and critical knowledge is the second; an original dealing
with modern problems in the light of Indian spirit and the Endeavour
to formulate a greater synthesis of a spiritualized society is the
third and most difficult. Its success on these three lines will be
the measure of its help to the future of humanity."

Thus, compliance of dharma is a
prerequisite for having happiness & freedom in personal life and
ultimately his liberation from mental impurities such as attachment &
aversion leading to the deliverance of the soul from recurring births
or transmigration, and for having accord & equality in social
life and ultimately peace, freedom, friendliness leading to the
progress & development of the society. In essence, Dharma means
the spirit of non- violence, universal love and purity of heart. It
should be our earnest desire and endeavor that no adjective added to
qualify the substantive (Dharma) become more prominent than the
substantive itself.

----------------------------------------------------------------------

Professor Mahavir Saran Jain

(Retired Director, Central
Institute of Hindi)

123, Hari Enclave, Buland Shahr
(INDIA) Pin-203 001